Europe

 

 

Spain is in the news.

Spain has now become the fourth Eurozone country, after Greece, Ireland and Portugal, to get bailout funds in the growing crisis gripping the Euro.

Unemployment is high and services are being cut to reduce debt and bring budgets into balance.  Some economists doubt this is possible within the context of a single currency shared with Germany and France. There have been violent but futile street demonstrations.

In September 2008 we travelled in Spain and Portugal. I had travelled in both countries twenty years earlier and wondered what might have changed. This is what we found.

Until 2008 the economy of Spain had been regarded as one of the most dynamic within the EU, attracting significant amounts of foreign investment and creating many new jobs.  It showed. 

Portugal had not been so prosperous and was already in economic trouble.  Since our visit in Spain too has also gone into reverse.

 

Changing Spain

 

 

As we approached Algeciras, on the ferry from Morocco, the most obvious first change in the past two decades was a wind farm along the coast near Tarifa, standing motionless; shades of Don Quixote.

 

One of many Wind Farms

 

The hotel, Reina Cristina, was very pleasant, set in spacious gardens with views over the harbour. Coming from Morocco to a grand hotel we definitely knew we had reached Europe; it was like getting home from a camping trip.  We enjoyed the change: the cocktails and the gardens.

 

Hotel Reina Cristina Algeciras

 

Algeciras itself is a commercial port town with little to recommend it but it stands on a wide bay. On the other side lies Gibraltar: The Rock. This is British territory and much disputed. 

A day later we took the train through the olive groves to Granada; the city at the foot of the Alhambra; once a Moorish fortified hill. 

 

 

Granada

Here the changes in twenty years were amazing.  My first visit, two decades earlier, had been on a bus tour and on our approach the guide had pointed to the hillside caves said to be inhabited by Gypsies.  We had been warned not to leave the hotel alone and preferably not at all at night. This may have been excessive caution with an eye to their liability insurance (people on tours are often given this advice in South America and the Middle East) but as a result even the town centre felt a little ominous. 

But this time we found a bustling good humoured tourist city full of cafes, bars and restaurants.  Street entertainment was all around and it was as pleasant to sit in one of the many parks.  Another change was in the people.  Gone are the apparently sinister, lurking men and the small, darkly dressed, scurrying women of yesteryear; in their place we found attractive, fashionably casual, young people enjoying themselves. 

 

A Granada Cafe

 

The Alhambra, the red fortress on the hill, is rich in history.  It is beautiful; possibly first among Spain’s many attractive architectural gems.  It remains a tribute to the Moors and to Muslim art and science; a brilliant contrast to the more barbaric Medieval Christians of its day. 

 

The Alhambra - one of many colonnades

 

Moor is a collective name for a group of Islamic tribes.  They were principally Berbers who invaded from the Iberian peninsular from Morocco. The Berbers were people from territories west of the Nile that had formed part of the earlier Egyptian and Byzantine Empires. They were sophisticated and in many cases inheritors of the multi-layered Egyptian and Greek cultures; and the more recent mix with Islam. 

Earlier Berbers had included Saint Augustine of Hippo, the fourth century Christian theologian largely responsible for the religion’s institutionalisation within the Roman Empire; and the concept of the Church as the City of God. 

After 800 years of co-procreation and forced religious conversion many modern Spaniards are ethnically similar.  In Spain and Portugal the term 'Moor' refered to religion, culture and tradition as much as to race; whereas in Europe more generally it came to mean a black person; as in Shakespeare’s Othello.

The Moors initially conquered the whole peninsular; south of the Pyrenees.  Over the next eight centuries they were progressively pushed south by Christian Crusaders and the reconquest: the Reconquista.  During their occupation of the Iberian peninsular Christian Spain absorbed their unique and attractive Moorish architecture and their more advanced mathematics and science; including advanced steel making in swords; the use of gunpowder in weapons; celestial navigation; and our modern number system. Their architectural influence was subsequently spread to the new world by Spanish conquerors and has been further developed in the US; particularly in California. 

The Moorish influence is particularly evident in Seville where the Christian Palace, the Alcázar, mimics the Moorish style; down to tiles and internal water features. 

 

The Christian Alcázar in Saville

Its builder was the Christian King Peter 1 (the Cruel; last of the House of Burgundy) who ruled from Seville while the Moors still held southern Andalucía.  Al-Andalus was the collective name for the Islamic kingdoms of southern Iberia.  Peter even took the additional title Sultan and signed his name in Arabic script.

The Christians had eventually pushed the Moors back to southern Andalucía centred on Granada.

 

 

The Catholic Monarchs

In 1469 teenage cousins, Ferdinand and Isabella, from the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were married uniting these previously separate Christian royal houses.  Ferdinand and Isabella were given special Papal dispensation to marry, overlooking their shared blood (consanguinity); and became known as the Reyes Católicos: the Catholic Monarchs.   

 

Isabella La Catolica

 

In 1476 Isabella formed the Holy Hermandad: or Holy Brotherhood; an early version of the SS or KGB; initially designed to control obstreperous Christian nobles.  Hermandad soon became a byword for brutality.  Four years later the Reyes Católicos set up the Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition: the infamous Spanish Inquisition. Within two decades of coming to the throne they had repudiated earlier treaties with the Moors; and then invaded southern Andalucía.   

With Spain now unified under their rule they compulsorily converted, expelled, or murdered all Jews and Muslims in Spain.  Tens of thousands fled and thousands were put to death; often by burning alive. The inquisition continually tested the sincerity of the converts.  Pig meats of all kind became a basic staple and eating them an ongoing test of conversion; pig is a dominant ingredient in Spanish cuisine that persists today.

It was Isabella who apocryphally believed the world was flat; on advice from her fundamentalist theologians.  That the earth was spherical was well known to the Moors and the Muslim traders; trading with and settling in south East Asia centuries earlier; and to almost every well-read person since the Greeks.  

The Genoan (Italian) sailor and entrepreneur Christopher Columbus had hawked his idea of sailing east to the Spice Islands (Indonesia) to several other royal courts before approaching the Catholic Monarchs.  He had been universally rejected.  Not because they thought the earth was flat but because they knew it was spherical; and its approximate size. 

They correctly estimated that the real distance to the Indies was around three times that which Columbus claimed and pointed out that the much shorter route to the Indies via South Africa had recently been explored by the Portuguese sailor Bartolomeu Dias. 

As a quick look at google Earth reveals the traditional overland spice route, through Istanbul, is close to the shortest distance.

It is widely acknowledged that Columbus was known to be an exceptional sailor but also a man strongly convinced of this own correctness.  His confidence and bravado won over Ferdinand and Isabella.

 

 
The dusty sarcophagus of Christopher Columbus in Seville
(the remains were moved several times prior to resting here - DNA tests confirm their identity)

 

It seems that some in Court were not so swayed and privately thought it unlikely he would succeed. Consequently very generous terms for future management and dividing up the possible spoils were agreed.  

They were wrong.  Not only was a new world discovered, it was already populated with several civilisations sufficiently advanced to value and mine large quantities of gold and silver; but not advanced enough to have weapons of steel; let alone gunpowder or nitro-celulous; or so advanced as to have lasers or atomic weapons.  Fruit ripe for the plucking.

It was through supreme ignorance, surpassing that of any in Europe, that the Reyes Católicos supported Columbus; and so serendipitously set Spain on the path to great wealth and glory.

Ferdinand and Isabella had no conscience in repudiating their deal with Columbus; once they realised the scale of the wealth involved.

In 1500, when he was just 48 years old, Columbus was arrested in Santo Domingo and stripped of all his posts. He died at Valladolid in Spain six years later; still insisting that he had reached the Indies. His sons then spent many years in legal disputes; attempting to hold the Crown to their undertakings. 

The new world he had discovered was named 'America', after the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci, instead.

Isabella was similarly successful in forming powerful alliances throughout Christian Europe through the strategic marriages of her five children.  She died in 1504 and Ferdinand died in 1516.

 

 

The Alhambra

When the Christians overwhelmed the Moors in 1492 the Alhambra was given up without a fight to protect it from damage.  Initially it was let decay but thirty five years later King Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who was actually an Italian and struggled to speak Spanish (my sympathy), built a Romanesque palace within the grounds.  This palace is used today as exhibition and performance space.  It is large commanding structure with a large circular central atrium. It was apparently avant-garde in 1527 but it seems out-of-keeping and jars with the Moorish parts of the complex, which have more complex exteriors and are elaborately carved, inscribed and tiled internally with extensive water features; now set in beautiful, more recent, gardens. 

 

 
Palacio de Carlos V

 

Muslim development of the site had commenced in 889; just over two and a half centuries after Islam began.  Niches arches and a number of rooms are roofed with stalactite like ceramics, mocárabes, in recollection of the Profit’s initial vision that took place when he had retreated to the cave at Hira to escape and contemplate; from which came away with the revelation that God is one and everything; and was inspired to dictate the Koran: Qur'an.

 

 

While building his palace Charles V also made changes to the old Harem; the family home and domestic part of the Moorish Palace to adapt its use for his Queen. 

The existence of the Harem in the Alhambra has been seen by some commentators, including the author of the 1980’s guide book, as evidence of Moorish decadence.  But of course private family rooms always exist in a palace.  Christian kings; Popes and wealthy men, like William Randolph Hurst, have generally kept their mistresses in a separate establishment; often married to someone else.  The last two British Princes of Wales; eventually married their favourite, already married, mistresses; unlike the many previous members of the British royal family who didn't (let not poor Nelly starve).

 

 

Having many wives has been a sign of wealth and power in the Middle East and Asia for thousands of years before Islam.  But it is not in the Greek or Roman tradition adopted by Christianity. According to the Bible, Solomon (over 900 years BCE) had 700 wives and 300 concubines.  Consequently the private part of an Eastern palace can be very large.   As an hereditary monarch’s first duty is the siring of heirs to the throne, servants in these parts of the palace were exclusively women and girls and/or castrated men.  In those days a monarch couldn’t risk one’s wives, the mothers of the royal heirs, having affairs with officers of the guard; or the sons of wealthy merchants. 

Not withstanding its preservation and restoration by Charles V the Alhambra has from time to time fallen into disuse; in part because of subsequent vilification of the Moors.  But today it is Spain’s premier tourist attraction. 

 

The favorite tourist photo - I'm not too proud to take it!

 

Despite this I do know someone who stayed in Grenada and didn't visit the Alhambra.  The city does have its own attractions and boasts an enormous baroque Cathedral; built over the site of the main mosque after the Christians retook southern Andalucía. 

 

Grenada's gold-encrusted Cathedral

 

Apparently the many more youthful attractions now surpass the red fortress: Julia?

 

 

Córdoba (Cordova)

From Granada we travelled to Cordoba; another great Moorish centre with its huge columned mosque.  The city has been an important centre since Roman and Byzantine times when it was the capital of the Roman province of Hispania. The Guadalquivir River is still crossed at this point by a substantial Roman stone bridge. 

 

Cordoba's still in use Roman Bridge

 

By the 11th century Cordoba was the Moorish government centre for most of the Iberian Peninsula and the largest city in the world.  It was a renowned intellectual centre with a very large library.

Muslim art and science was then at its most advanced; having translated and developed upon the knowledge of the Greek natural philosophers and mathematicians; knowledge at that time largely lost, or suppressed, in Medieval Europe.  Today some of those Greek works are available only in Arabic; the originals having been lost.

Modern mathematics and commerce, particularly banking, could not have developed without the advances these Islamic scholars made in mathematics. We still use their number system in everyday life in place of the medieval Roman number system.  Today it is hard for us to reconcile a commitment to scholarship and scientific discovery with our understanding of Islamic fundamentalism, with its faith in the absolute authority in the Holy Koran; just as it is difficult to imagine fundamentalist Christians or Jews embracing scientific ideas that contradict the Bible or that deny the central role of humanity, and our imagined gods, in the Universe.  But this was a time of great debate and intellectual flowering when religion was required to make a case in the intellectual mix against the new discoveries and ideas.

Historians attribute the renaissance in Europe to the complex interplay between Islam; the monastic intellectual tradition in eastern Greek speaking (Byzantine) Christianity centred on Constantinople and Latin Christianity.  Science, engineering, mathematics and medicine reasserted their importance with the military successes of Islam.  These conflicts particularly in Spain refined the military use of gunpowder and metallurgy. The new weapons and advances in navigation and commerce based on Islamic astronomy and mathematics refined the military arts to new heights; facilitating the European conquest of the new world; and bringing the age of empires.

In Cordoba the reconquering Christians re-asserted the primacy of the older religion by building a church right in the middle of the mosque; which is far too large to cover over with a cathedral.

 

One of the four sides of the old Mosque surrounding the central Cathedral

 

They usurped the remainder of the mosque by hanging Christian icons throughout the building in contravention of the Islamic and Jewish prohibition of such representations of the holy. 

 

One of many crucifixes in the Mosque
(interesting four nail style with full Latin/Greek inscription - Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews - and memento mori)

 

The Mosque was in turn built over earlier Roman buildings from pre-Christian times. This contradictory mix is beautiful and interesting. It has now apparently taken on double, perhaps triple, religious significance with a section restored to Islam; and an archaeological excavation in part of the floor.

 

The earlier Roman - and possibly Byzantine level - below the Mosque

 

So I was reprimanded by an official for lying on my back to photograph the ceiling; not that there were any local parishioners evident in the church or prayers in the mosque; nor ancient Roman priests in evidence.

As we were to observe across Spain another change in twenty years is that the churches are no longer heavily patronised by one and all. Indeed even on Sunday few attract more than a handful.  Almost all now charge for admission. A young Spaniard told me that compulsory church attendance was associated with the Franco years.  Non church goers were suspected by the secret police of being communists or otherwise dangerous radicals.

Franco (General Francisco Franco y Bahamonde) led the Nationalists to victory in the Spanish Civil War 1936-39 and ruled Spain as a crypto-fascist dictator. He was not so ‘crypto’ at first when he enjoyed the support of Hitler and Mussolini; as well as the Vatican. Then, after World War 2, he held power with the support of the US, and of course the Vatican, as a strong anti-communist during the Cold War.  He retained power until his death in 1975. 

When I was in Spain two decades earlier the country was still recovering from his authoritarianism and civil rights abuses.  Now Franco's name is anathema to many younger Spaniards; and is being erased wherever possible.  Such is posterity.  Consequently the churches, once so clearly associated with him, are largely empty.

But I’m at a loss as to why Spanish girls and women, who I thought overrated back then, are now so much better looking.  Is it the improved lifestyle; the work of the Devil; or just me getting older?

 

 
Cafe Flamenco - the feet belong to the Guitarist

 

Another interesting change is the prominence given to Cervantes Don Quixote.  Back then ‘the impossible dream’ was everywhere and I remember writing that it was odd that an entire country would be so attached to the nobility of a lost cause; ridiculous naivety; or outrageous misunderstanding. But then I suppose they needed to rationalise Franco some way. 

Apart from a few drink coasters in tourist shops this preoccupation seems to have disappeared.

 

 

Seville

After Cordoba our itinerary took us by high speed train to Seville the capital of Andalusia with its glorious public architecture.  

 

Plaza de España

 

The trains in Spain are generally modern and of a high standard.  The new high speed trains employ 25 kV AC (50 Hz); well in advance of those in New South Wales and Victoria.

 

 
High-speed electric trains

 

In addition to the Alcázar, mentioned above, Seville has an old town skirted by grand parks and classical buildings like the Plaza de Espagna; an art museum; a bull ring; and a cathedral. 

Seville Cathedral is distinguished by a courtyard of orange trees (Seville Oranges) and the sarcophagus of Christopher Columbus. 

 

The mighty Seville Cathedral

 

When built it was the largest, and most expensive, Gothic cathedral in the world.  It remains the third largest church on the planet.  It is truly impressive: beautiful Gothic arches; gilded features; gold and jewelled sacred objects; and wonderful stained glass.

Churches in Spain are impressively wealthy; the cathedrals magnificent.  They are often resplendent in gold and gilded silver; some objects so heavy that a robber would need a forklift truck.

 

A touch of gold is very tasteful - the main treasures are elsewhere

 

Outside the old town it is a modern city with good hotels but much like any other. 

 

The hotel in Seville - much like any other.

 

I was impressed by the extensive use of bicycles, which can be hired by the hour or day from racks around the city.

 

Swipe your card and ride away

 

Because there are no helmet laws people can simply jump on one and pedal off.  They do this in large numbers; assisted by the flat terrain; the compact size of the old town; car free areas; and extensive bicycle lanes. Speeds are very modest. 

Seville was once very wealthy and retains many impressive houses.  It continues to be a very pleasant place of coffee shops, bars and restaurants.  

 

Grounds of the Alcázar Seville

We even got briefly lost looking for the synagogue in the Barrio de Santa Cruz; a labyrinth of narrow streets once a Jewish ghetto; prior to their expulsion in 1492. How touristy can we get?

 

 

Madrid and Toledo

Madrid is the largest city in Spain; with twice the population of Sydney. It’s the National capital; seat of government; the home of the Royal Family; and cultural centre of Spain.

 

Paseo de Recoletos, Madrid

 

It’s also the location of the Prado, one of the world’s foremost art museums.  In the same area are several other art museums; in particular the brilliant Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum. 

 

Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum

 

You can tour a few of the works on line (click here).  The Prado has its own website with images – if you know what you are looking for (click here).

In addition to the Royal Palace and Opera House there are many grand government buildings and embassies.  

 

Royal Palace

 

The city is well appointed with wide boulevards; many parks; and several large plazas featuring street art and music. 

 

Plaza Mayor, Madrid

 

Cars are excluded or restricted in a number of shopping streets in the city centre; where shade sails provide an arcade feeling in some areas. 

 

Calle del Arenal, Madrid

 

There is a modern and extensive metro and a number of underground road tunnels assisting the flow of traffic. 

 

 

 

Like the rest of Spain people frequent restaurants and bars and stay up very late.  But Madrid has the additional buzz and night-life of a large city.

 

Flamenco stage show

 

 

The only down-side was the cost of accommodation.  Our hotel, although centrally located, was the least value for money on the entire trip. But it did not spoil our enjoyment of Madrid which although more developed and modern in many ways was yet much as I recalled all those years earlier.

 

Fuente de Cibeles - with rubber duckies

 

From Madrid we made a side trip to Toledo one day.

 

Toledo

Toledo is one of the oldest cities in Spain.  It was an important Roman centre and later the Visigoth capital. In Roman, Visigoth and Moorish times and then under the reconquest it was the preeminent European centre for sword manufacture and steel making; latterly for guns.

Toledo steel was second only to Damascus steel; from which some techniques were transferred by the Moors. Neither city is a major steelmaking centre today.  Modern materials science and technology has overtaken them. But Toledo still makes swords using today’s commercial steels; mainly for the tourist industry.

A Gothic Cathedral dominates the city; that also retains Roman and Moorish buildings.

 

 Toledo - Cathedral in background

It has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site because of the many remnants of these societies and industry still evident.

 

 

 

More Pictures of Spain

 

 

 

 

Portugal

 

 

 

We went to Portugal from Seville, by coach to Faro the far south, before returning to Spain and Madrid.

There we hired a car and made our way north to Lisbon staying in the Pousadas de Portugal; hotels established in old monasteries and castles (click here ).

 

 It's dreadful having to slum it!

 

The car was a very nice brand new diesel Fiat; just right for zipping along the very good EC funded country roads with virtually no other traffic. 

 

A roman style bridge - note the traffic

 

Despite the very fine accommodation and pleasant countryside Portugal was at times depressing.

 Twenty years earlier it was vibrant compared to Spain. But three years ago Portugal was already in the grip of a long recession and high unemployment.   According to the OECD the economic contribution of the farm sector in Portugal has shrunk by a massive two thirds in the past two decades.

Carbon farming has sterilised a good deal of the best agricultural land.  Cork lies in untended heaps by the roadside; while vast plantations of young trees have years to go before they yield a crop.  Meanwhile wine makers worldwide are moving to metal screw tops as they deliver a better, more consistent product, with superior controlled breathing when cellared; and result in virtually no wastage due to corkage. 

We also saw vineyards lying untended, going to rack and ruin, and in the villages unemployed field workers aimlessly loitering in the streets or playing cards in back alleys.  In the fields and lanes we saw farmers using horses for ploughing; reminiscent of the Middle East rather than Europe. 

 

Despite the distant plantations the countryside is not in good condition

 

Notwithstanding this, and despite having only one or two words and using fingers for pointing and counting, we were greeted with hospitality and good humour in the villages.  In one café a local girl had quite good schoolgirl English that helped a lot.

The strange thing was that I could make better sense of written Portuguese than of written Spanish; although pronounced differently it has more in common with English.

 

 
Note the Australian Rugby on the TV

 

In regional Portugal the churches are still well attended; particularly by small women dressed in black.  They are also often populated by garish painted statuary that is sometimes clothed, presumably by the faithful.  Piety abounds; along with colourful posters imaginatively misrepresenting the developing foetus; and proclaiming the twin evils of contraception and abortion.

 

 

We visited a number of fortified towns.  The country is enormously rich in history.  There is considerable built archaeology; often dating back to the initial pre-Christian Roman conquest around 200 BCE; through the early Christian era and the Visigoths; to the Moors and the Christian reconquest.   

 

Another well defended town

 

There is also a rich pre-history.  As recently as 25,000 years ago our near-human big-brained cousins, the Neanderthal, roamed these lands; just before their extinction; probably at our hands. 

With the collapse of the Roman Empire Portugal was invaded in the fifth century by the Christian Visigoths and Suevi; wandering tribes originating in Germany.  Like the rest of Iberia, two centuries later it fell to Islam and the Moors but in the ninth century the Northern Province was reconquered by a Christian (Count Vímara Peres) when it first became known as Portugal. It took another four centuries for the Christians to fully reconquer modern Portugal. 

Nevertheless this was relatively early in the reconquest of the Iberian peninsular. The early reconquest defined its separate character; as it reached a centuries-long accommodation with its Muslim neighbours.  

 

Ibn Qasi the Sufi (Islamic) governor of the Taifa of Mértola Portugal
who fought against the Almoravid dynasty in Al-Andalus (Spain).  

 

As the reconquest continued in Spain, Portugal was more often at war with the neighbouring Christians than with the Moors.

When the Jews were expelled from Spain during the rule of Isabella and Ferdinand many fled to Portugal.  As Jews tended to be better educated middle class, for a time Portugal more than held its own in the economic competition with its larger neighbour.  Spain soon realised its mistake and offered Jews the right to return; provided they converted to Christianity; few accepted.

 

 

Lisbon

Lisbon still seemed prosperous enough until we ventured into the suburbs where many buildings were poorly maintained; some were graffiti covered and seemed to be abandoned; others secured with wire and bars; and the less salubrious streets felt unsafe.

Dominating the city is a fortified hill from which there are excellent views. 

 

 

From here it is just as picturesque as I remembered; and the narrow-gauge trams are fun. 

 

Riding the trams

 

Electronic tickets can be used across the city public transport system. Unlike proximity cards in other cities, that are usually plastic and are recycled many times, these are cardboard and disposed of after one or two uses.  Although each contains a purpose built micro-chip and associated antenna they litter the transport system.  Someone’s making a lot of money.

The Gothic/ Romanesque Cathedral in Lisbon is not as large as those in Spain and relatively unimpressive.  Portugal is prone to earthquakes and Cathedrals and churches are particularly vulnerable.  This one has been restored several times and is relatively squat by Gothic standards (only half as tall internally as even the Gothic Revival Roman Catholic and Anglican Cathedrals in Sydney).  

 

Lisbon Cathedral

 

Roman ruins built over in the medieval and Islamic periods have been discovered under the Cathedral cloister and much of the grounds are being excavated by archaeologists.  The dig has been provided with elevated walk-ways for visitors; it’s more interesting than the church.

 

Archaeology
the lowest levels are iron age topped by a Roman 1st century street and steps
above these was built a medieval cistern and other construction

 

Lisbon also boasts a big Jesus (Christ the Redeemer) on a tower; it’s a small replica of the one in Rio (see elsewhere on this site). This is an acknowledgement of the close relationship and common language with Brazil; the largest and wealthiest of their former colonies.

 

mini-me

 

Portugal has always had a close diplomatic relationship with Britain with whom they allied in the peninsular campaign against the French under Napoleon. At this time the Portuguese Court transferred to Rio de Janeiro. The building used as a palace can be seen in the article on Brazil elsewhere on this website.  In due course this led to Brazil's independence in 1822.

Lisbon has a fine museum housing European art and archaeological artefacts; illuminating its complex history. 

 

Is the naked man after the girl; or just returning her towel?

 

There are also pleasant parks; at least one featuring a collection of interesting sculptures; popular with young lovers.

From Lisbon we returned to Spain and Madrid.

 

 

More Pictures of Portugal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Christian Spain and Portugal

Between 1452 and 1494 the Pope granted sovereignty of all the new world territories to Portugal and Spain; the proportions varying according to power struggles between the parties.  The Papacy also gave two these countries extraordinary powers in the new world.  The Papal Bull of 1455 granted them the right to ‘reduce pagans and other enemies of Christ to perpetual slavery’.

 

The reconquest set the tone for the Conquistadors

 

I suppose the biblical precedent was when  God gave Joshua a licence to kill all the men and boys and any woman who has slept with a man; in the lands he had given to the Israelites ‘as an inheritance’. He was required by God to take all their material belongings (and the virgins);  (Numbers 31:17; Deuteronomy 20:16; Joshua 8 etc; numerous references).

The 1455 Bull became a licence to rob the conquered lands of their wealth, particularly gold and silver, and enslave the populations. 

In due course this caused growing concern within the Church as native peoples were successfully evangelised and converted to Christianity. 

The Franciscans were particularly active missionaries; as can be seen by the many locations called San Francisco. The Dominicans were so appalled by the colonial authorities they even sided with native revolutionaries seeking independence on several occasions. Also concerned were the Jesuits; with their emphasis on learning and civil rights.

In addition to evangelising and doing good works these various Orders still found time to attack each other; as we have seen in South America; stripping each other's churches and re-decorating as ecclesiastical territories changed.

 

 
A church in south eastern Peru 

 

During our more recent trips to South America; Mexico; Cuba; and of course California; the impact and lasting influence of the Spanish and Portuguese was evident in every aspect of life.

But brutal as the Christian conquerors could be, it would be hard to compete in brutality with the human sacrifice, beheadings and forced labour practiced by the preceding religions of the Inca, Maya and Aztec.  It’s little wonder that the Conquistadors found so many local supporters in their overthrow of these civilisations; or that the Church found such fertile ground for evangelising.

I once speculated that that the plot of King Lear might in part be a parable based on Spain and Portugal (Goneril and Regan) and the Pope (Lear), with Cordelia as France (with whom she is aligned in the play).  This appeals to me but I haven’t seen the parallel (or parable) anywhere else; so I may be ‘drawing a long bow’.

I simply note that in Shakespeare’s time Portugal and Spain were struggling over how to split the new territories between them.  The Pope had made an arbitrary division on his map of the world; but excluded France from the spoils; just like King Lear.  In the course of his differences with Charles V of Spain the Holy Roman Emperor, Pope Clement VII had become his prisoner.  France was now at war with Charles V.

King Lear is of course a tragedy in which all three sisters and their father; as well as several others; lie dead by the end of the play.   The element of parable is possibly one factor in the play’s popularity in Elizabethan England.

The final treaty between Spain and Portugal and the Pope to divide up the world was the Treaty of Tordesillas.  This still stands in establishing borders in South America and was used by Argentina as recently as the Falklands War as part of its territorial claim; and justification for the invasion. 

Needless to say the Treaty and the authority it purported were never recognised by England; France; Germany; or after its liberation from Spain, the Netherlands.  These countries, and later the United States, set about taking the territories thus granted away from Spain and Portugal; generally by force of arms.

But the initial ‘open slather’ on exploiting the resources and people of the new world and Asia opened the way to great wealth for both countries.  Spain, in particular, quickly became a super-power. 

 

He's got the whole world in his hand...

 

Conflicts with England, Holland and France and the Thirty Years War whittled away at this power; followed by Napoleonic invasion; wars of independence in the colonies; and the First World War; culminating in the Spanish Revolution and the advent of Franco. Since Franco's death Spain has undergone rapid economic growth and improvement in the material standard of living.

 

 

The Eurozone

 

 

 

 

 

 

Once Spain joined the Eurozone it became impossible for currency fluctuations to balance capital flows and trade into and out of the regional economy.

Indebtedness accumulated to an unsustainable level and growth has now faltered.

Some economists argue that there is a fundamental problem in having a shared currency without a true commonwealth; in which debt is the centrally managed, common burden, of the entire currency region.

Internal free trade and freedom of labour mobility are necessary but not sufficient.  These too are more problematic in Europe, due to language and educational differences, than in the US or Australia.

Centralised monetary management was a lesson Australia learnt very early after the founding of our Commonwealth; with the States soon surrendering control over borrowings and eventually most taxation. Premier Lang in NSW fortunately lost that battle; and was dismissed by the Governor as a result.  There is more detail elsewhere on this website  (click here). 

In due course we also learnt not to peg our currency to sterling or the US dollar. Similarly other commonwealths like the US, UK, Canada and Switzerland have centrally managed currencies; banks and borrowing mechanisms; not that the US has been a model of good management in this respect recently.

Today Spain is no longer a world power but it is remarkable for its electrical power.  Renewable energy installations seem to be everywhere.  I’ve already mentioned wind-power but photo-voltaic (PV) solar panels can be seen mounted on buildings all over southern Spain and can even been seen large blocks amongst the olive groves. 

 

One of many PV Solar installations - still very expensive electricity

 

The largest thermal solar plant in Europe is just outside Grenada; Andasol parabolic trough solar thermal power plant - see elsewhere on this website (click here).  

Spain is close to the antipodes of the north island of New Zealand; with a climate similar to Southern Australia.  Australian gum trees grow very well there; as do Spanish plants, like oleander, in Australia. 

Spain has just over twice the population of Australia (46.1 m and 22.7 m) so I expected, given a similar climate, total electricity generated would be close to double Australia’s.  On looking this up on the International Energy Agency (IEA) website I was surprised to discover that Australian electricity consumption per capita is much higher; in part due to higher GDP per capita but also because our electricity price is lower.  So Australia with half the population consumes almost as much electricity as Spain; both domestically and in industry and commerce. 

There the similarity ends. Australia generates almost our entire needs from fossil fuel: 78% from coal; 15% from gas and oil; 5% from hydro; 1% from wind and 0.1% from solar.  

Only 56% of Spain's electricity comes from fossil fuels; mostly from gas and oil imported from oil fields across the Mediterranean. The non-fossil sources are: 18% nuclear; 13% wind; 10% hydro; and 2% solar.

This makes Spain a World solar and wind super-star.  It generates twice the proportion of both wind and solar achieved by Germany; often held up as a world example of successful renewable energy strategies. 

Solar is currently the most expensive source of mains electricity; followed by wind. Both are much more expensive than coal, nuclear and hydro; generally the cheapest.  For example Denmark that gets nearly 20% from wind, the greatest proportion in the world, has the most expensive electricity in Europe.  But Denmark have no nuclear; hydro; and little solar so they are nearly as fossil fuel dependent as Australia.

Countries with relatively low price electricity use little wind or solar: France relies on 76% nuclear; 11% hydro; and less than 2% wind and solar combined.  It also has a famous tidal power station, providing around a tenth of a percent of its electricity needs.  Both Sweden and Switzerland rely on a roughly equal mix of nuclear and hydro electricity.  

It might be speculated that electricity cost and reliability makes industrial development less attractive in Spain than it once was; possibly another factor in the growing economic inequalities between north and south confronting the Eurozone at present.  Again this argues for a freeing of Europe's electricity market so that market forces determine investment and the location; type and scale of electricity assets.

 

Spain is crisscrossed with power grids

 

But this can’t be the only factor or Denmark would also be a problem State; and it is not.  The major contribution is more likely to be that much of the renewable energy is funded by large debt burdens apparently attributable to the region rather than to the technology providers or entrepreneurs.  

Spain happens to be geographically well located for wind and solar energy; just as some regions are well suited to dams. There are great differences in the cost of producing electricity by these differing means.  In order for solar and wind power to be competitive very large implicit subsidies are required; either reducing the cost of the initial capital investment or as an ongoing subsidy to the price of energy.

Australia is physically far larger than Europe but has a single eastern electricity market serving all the States except Western Australia where even a very high voltage DC link would involve excessive transmission losses.  As a result, very the large subsidy for wind power in the smaller states Tasmania and South Australia appears equally in electricity bills in NSW and Queensland, where wind power contributes negligible amounts to the local grid. 

In a European commonwealth, raising capital for a wind farm or solar plant would either be: a strictly commercial venture, in which entrepreneurs are assured of an ongoing subsidy through the common energy market; or funded by the central taxing authority to the extent of the additional capital cost necessary per unit of electricity generation.   This would be about half the cost in the case of wind generated electricity and over two thirds in the case of solar.

If there were good reasons to utilise renewable energy agreed centrally within the Eurozone it would not be a regional government responsibility to fund the non-commercial component of wind and solar projects; particularly as much of the equipment is manufactured, and intellectual property resides elswhere in Eurozone.  

When an energy subsidy was required it would then be a centrally agreed burden across all electricity consumers within the Eurozone.

Where this was not the case Spain might then have been better advised to simply burn more fossil fuel; build an aditional nuclear plant; or to import more electricity from France.